Electrospinning apparatus, methods of use, and uncompressed fibrous mesh

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide electrospinning devices, methods of use, uncompressed fibrous mesh, and the like, are disclosed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationSer. No. 61/323,179, entitled “Electrospun Nanofiber Matrix withCotton-Ball like Three-Dimensional Macroporous Structure” filed on Apr.12, 2010, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

FEDERAL SPONSORSHIP

This invention was made with Government support under Contract/Grant No.CBET-0952974, awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). TheGovernment has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

Traditional electrospinning produces flat, highly interconnectedscaffolds consisting of densely packed nanofibers. These electrospunscaffolds can support the adhesion, growth, and function of various celltypes, while also promoting their maturation into specific tissuelineages. However, a major limitation of traditional electrospunscaffolds is that they have tightly packed layers of nanofibers withonly a superficially porous network, resulting in confinement tosheet-like formations only. This unavoidable characteristic restrictscell infiltration and growth through the scaffolds. Thus, there is aneed to develop an innovative strategy capable of fabricating anelectrospun scaffold that overcomes these limitations.

SUMMARY

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide electrospinning devices,methods of use, uncompressed fibrous mesh, and the like, are disclosed.

One exemplary electrospinning apparatus, among others, includes: adevice that a fiber is drawn from, wherein the tip of the device fromwhere the fiber is drawn is at a first potential, and a structure thatincludes a plurality of conductive probes, wherein each probe has adistal end, wherein a portion of each probe extends from anon-conductive surface of the structure, wherein a first set of thedistal ends are recessed relative to a second set of distal ends,wherein the first set and the set of distal ends form a first boundaryof a target volume, wherein a second boundary of the target volume isnot bound by the distal ends of the plurality of the probes, wherein thedevice is positioned adjacent the second boundary, wherein theconductive probes are at second potential, wherein there is a potentialdifference between the first potential and the second potential thatcauses the fiber to be directed to the target volume through the secondboundary.

One exemplary method of forming an uncompressed fibrous mesh, amongothers, includes: applying a potential difference between a tip of adevice and a plurality of conductive probes on a structure, wherein eachprobe has a distal end, wherein a portion of each probe extends from anon-conductive surface of the structure, wherein a first set of thedistal ends are recessed relative to a second set of distal ends,wherein the first set and the set of distal ends form a first boundaryof a target volume, wherein a second boundary of the target volume isnot bound by the distal ends of the plurality of the probes; drawing afiber from the tip towards the target volume through the secondboundary; and forming the uncompressed fibrous mesh in the targetvolume.

One exemplary structure, among others, includes: an uncompressed fibrousmesh including a fiber, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has avolume that is about 50 to 1800 cm³, wherein the fiber occupies about 5to 20% of the volume of the uncompressed fibrous mesh.

Other apparatuses, systems, methods, features, and advantages of thisdisclosure will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art uponexamination of the following drawings and detailed description. It isintended that all such additional apparatuses, systems, methods,features, and advantages be included within this description, be withinthe scope of this disclosure, and be protected by the accompanyingclaims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Further aspects of the present disclosure will be more readilyappreciated upon review of the detailed description of its variousembodiments, described below, when taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings.

FIG. 1.1 is an illustration of an embodiment of an electrospinningdevice.

FIGS. 1.2A to 1.2D illustrate cross-sections of embodiments of thestructure.

FIGS. 1.3A and 1.3B illustrate cross-sections of embodiments of thestructure.

FIGS. 1.4A to 1.4C illustrates cross-sections of the A-A plane of thestructure shown in FIG. 1.2A.

FIGS. 1.5A to 1.5D illustrates perspective views of shapes of thestructure without probes.

FIG. 2.1( a) illustrates a scheme for traditional electrospinning. FIG.2.1( b) illustrates a scheme for creating a cotton ball-like electrospunscaffold using spherical dish and metal array. The PCL solution in thesyringe (I) is ejected from the syringe nozzle (II). The solution isattracted to the grounded collectors by the voltage difference generatedby (III). In FIG. 2.1 a illustrates the electrospun PCL nanofibersaccumulate as tightly packed layers on the traditional flat-platecollector (IV), and in FIG. 2.1 b, the spherical dish collector (V)allows nanofibers to accumulate in a structure resembling a cotton ball.

FIG. 2.2( a) illustrates a traditional ePCL scaffold with a flat,two-dimensional structure with no depth for the traditional scaffolds.FIG. 2.2( b) illustrates a cotton ball-like ePCL scaffold shows with afluffy, three-dimensional structure of the scaffolds. FIG. 2.2( c)illustrates a cotton ball, which illustrates the relative shape anddensity of the electrospun nanofibers.

FIG. 2.3( a) illustrates a SEM image of traditional ePCL nanofiberscollected using a flat sheet with nanofiber diameters between 300-400 nmand pore sizes <1 μm. FIG. 2.3(b) illustrates a SEM image of cottonball-like ePCL nanofibers collected using the spherical dish and metalarray collector with nanofiber diameters around 500 nm and pore sizesbetween 2-5 μm. For both images, magnification is 5000× and scale bars=5μm.

FIGS. 2.4 a to 2.4 d illustrate confocal microscopy images of: FIG. 2.4(a), three-dimensional rendering of a traditional ePCL scaffold and FIG.2.4( b), two-dimensional projection of a traditional ePCL scaffold showa tightly packed nanofibrous structure. In contrast, the confocalmicroscope images of the three-dimensional rendering of a cottonball-like ePCL scaffold (FIG. 2.4( c)) and two-dimensional projection ofa cotton ball-like ePCL scaffold show (FIG. 2.4( d)) an un-dense,loosely packed network structure throughout its depth. Scale bar=50 μm.

FIG. 2.5 illustrates images of H&E stained sections of traditional ePCLscaffolds seeded with INS-1 cells after (a) 1 day, (c) 3 days, and (e) 7days show that cellular infiltration is limited to the top layers of thescaffolds, even after 7 days. Images of H&E stained sections of cottonball-like ePCL scaffolds after (b) 1 day, (d) 3 days, and (f) 7 daysshow that there is a progressive infiltration and growth into thescaffolds throughout the 7 days. For all images, section thicknesses=20μm, magnification=20×, and scale bars=100 μm.

FIG. 2.6 illustrates normalized INS-1 cells growth on (FIG. 2.6( a)) thetraditional ePCL scaffolds shows a gradual increase in cell number until7 days: whereas, on (FIG. 2.6( b)) the cotton ball-like ePCL scaffolds adramatic increase in cell number can be seen at Day 7. In both images,the horizontal normalization line has been included to better illustratethe difference in cell growth. *Cell number at Day 3 is significantlygreater than at Day 1 (p<0.05). **Cell number at Day 7 is significantlygreater than at Days 1 and 3 (p<0.05). Error bars representmeans±standard deviation. n=4

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present disclosure is described in greater detail, it is tobe understood that this disclosure is not limited to particularembodiments described, and as such may, of course, vary. It is also tobe understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to belimiting, since the scope of the present disclosure will be limited onlyby the appended claims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that eachintervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unlessthe context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lowerlimit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in thatstated range, is encompassed within the disclosure. The upper and lowerlimits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in thesmaller ranges and are also encompassed within the disclosure, subjectto any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the statedrange includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either orboth of those included limits are also included in the disclosure.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also beused in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, the preferredmethods and materials are now described.

All publications and patents cited in this specification are hereinincorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patentwere specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated byreference and are incorporated herein by reference to disclose anddescribe the methods and/or materials in connection with which thepublications are cited. The citation of any publication is for itsdisclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as anadmission that the present disclosure is not entitled to antedate suchpublication by virtue of prior disclosure. Further, the dates ofpublication provided could be different from the actual publicationdates that may need to be independently confirmed.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading thisdisclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustratedherein has discrete components and features which may be readilyseparated from or combined with the features of any of the other severalembodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the presentdisclosure. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of eventsrecited or in any other order that is logically possible.

Embodiments of the present disclosure will employ, unless otherwiseindicated, techniques of flow electrochemistry, material science,chemistry, and the like, which are within the skill of the art.

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinaryskill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how toperform the methods and use the probes disclosed and claimed herein.Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g.,amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should beaccounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight,temperature is in ° C., and pressure is at or near atmospheric. Standardtemperature and pressure are defined as 20° C. and 1 atmosphere.

Before the embodiments of the present disclosure are described indetail, it is to be understood that, unless otherwise indicated, thepresent disclosure is not limited to particular materials, reagents,reaction materials, manufacturing processes, or the like, as such canvary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein isfor purposes of describing particular embodiments only, and is notintended to be limiting. It is also possible in the present disclosurethat steps can be executed in different sequence where this is logicallypossible.

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appendedclaims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referentsunless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

DEFINITIONS

“Electrospinning” is a process in which fibers are formed from asolution or melt by streaming an electrically charged solution or meltthrough a hole across a potential gradient.

“Electrospun material” is any molecule or substance that forms astructure or group of structures (such as fibers, webs, or droplet), asa result of the electrospinning process. This material may be natural,synthetic, or a combination of such.

“Polymer” is any natural or synthetic molecule which can form longmolecular chains, such as polyolefin, polyamides, polyesters,polyurethanes, polypeptides, polysaccharides, and combinations thereof.In particular, the polymer can include: poly (ε-caprolactone), polyvinyl alcohol, polylactic acid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid,poly(etherurethane urea), collagen, elastin, chitosan, or anycombination of these.

Discussion

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide electrospinning devices,methods of use, and uncompressed fibrous mesh. Embodiments of thepresent disclosure are advantageous because they can produceuncompressed, highly porous, thick fibrous meshes using anelectrospinning device. In general, embodiments of the presentdisclosure are capable of collecting fiber(s) in a volume adjacentconductive probes extended from a non-conductive surface (e.g., inmid-air), where the network of fiber(s) resemble a small cotton-ballwith its fluffy appearance. Embodiments of the present disclosure allowfor the capturing of uncompressed fiber(s) so that the resultingstructure is highly porous (e.g., has a pore diameter of about 2 μm ormore). In an embodiment, the density is low enough for cells to disperseinto the mesh (e.g., density of about 30-200 kg/m³), but mechanicallystable enough support a tissue culture. Embodiments of the mesh can beused as a scaffold or container for materials such as cell culture, celldelivery, and/or drug delivery. In another embodiment, the mesh can beused as a filter, sponge, or a substrate that can include molecules ofinterest. Additional advantages and aspects of embodiments of thepresent disclosure will be described below and in the Example.

In general, an electrospinning device can include a device (e.g.,syringe) and a collection structure. The device is positioned adjacent(e.g., facing the collection structure) collection structure so thatfibers can be drawn out of a tip of the device (e.g., tip of thesyringe, which is known in the art) or other device across a gap (e.g.,distance of cms to 10s of cms) between the device and the collectionstructure toward the collection structure based on the potentialdifference between the tip and the collection structure. In anembodiment, two or more devices can feed fiber to the collectionstructure from different positions to produce a blend of fibers in themesh. The fiber can be made of polymers as described herein. In anembodiment, the fiber can be a nanofiber and can have a diameter ofabout 1 to 1000 nm, about 1 nm to 500 nm, about 10 nm to 300 nm, orabout 50 nm to 200 nm. An electric field (e.g., about 1 kV/cm to 3kV/cm) is produced between the device and the collection structure usingappropriate electronic systems. The potential difference between thedevice and the collection structure (e.g., conductive probes) is about 5kV to 60 kV or about 20 kV, while the distance between the device andthe collection structure is about 5 cm to 30 cm. The potentialdifference can vary depending on the various distances and dimensions aswell as polymers used to make the fiber.

FIG. 1.1 is an illustration of an embodiment of an electrospinningdevice 10. The electrospinning device 10 includes a device 12 that feedsa fiber 16 and a collection structure 22. The device 12 includes a tip14 (e.g., tip of a syringe) that is adjacent the collection structure22. One or more fibers of the same or different types of polymers can bedrawn from the device 12. In an embodiment, one or both of the deviceand the collection structure 22 can be moved relative to the other toproduce the fibrous mesh 18.

In an embodiment, the collection device 22 can include a nonconductivestructure 26 having a plurality of conductive probes 24. Each probe 24has a distal end extending out of the nonconductive structure 26 on theside closest the device 12 and ends to a tip of the probe 26. A portionof each probe 24 extends a distance from the surface of thenonconductive structure 26 of the structure. In an embodiment, thedistal ends of the probes 24 can be considered as two or more sets ofdistal ends, where each set can include 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000 or moredistal ends. In an embodiment, a first set of the distal ends arerecessed relative to a second set of distal ends (e.g., forming aconcave three dimensional volume). The first set and the set of distalends form a first boundary 44 (See FIG. 1.2A) of a target volume 42 anda second boundary 46 of the target volume 42 is not bound by the distalends of the plurality of the probes 24. The device 12 is positionedadjacent (e.g., about 2 to 30 cm) the second boundary 46. In anembodiment, the uncompressed fibrous mesh 18 is substantially (e.g.,about 50%, about 60%, about 70% about 80%, about 90%, or more, of theuncompressed fibrous mesh 18) formed in the target volume 42. The targetvolume, first boundary, and the second boundary, were not included inFIG. 1.1 for reasons of clarity. Reference is made to FIG. 1.2A to showthe relative location of the target volume, first boundary, and thesecond boundary, albeit the collection structure shown in FIG. 1.1 andFIG. 1.2A are different. Thus, reference to the target volume, firstboundary, and the second boundary in FIG. 1.2A should not limit thetarget volume, first boundary, and the second boundary in FIG. 1.1.

In an embodiment, the collection device can include a nonconductivestructure having only one or a few conductive probes. The one or moreprobes can define the first boundary as described herein. In anotherembodiment, the collection device can include a nonconductive structurehaving one or more areas on the nonconductive structure that areconductive (but no probes extending from the surface as in FIG. 1.1).The conductive portion can form the first boundary as described herein.

The probes 24 can be set at the same or different potentials relative toone another. The plurality of probes 24 can include about 0.1 to 4 orabout 0.25 to 1, probes per square cm. The distance between each probe24 or among the probes 24 can be about 0.25 to 10 cm or about 1 to 5 cm.The distance that each probe 24 extends from the surface of thenonconductive structure 26 can be the same or different, where thedistance can be about 0.5 to 10 cm or about 1 to 6 cm. The probes 24 canhave a diameter of about 100 μm to 0.5 cm or about 500 μm to 1 mm. In anembodiment, the probe 24 can be tapered so that the tip of the distalend of the probe 24 is either thinner or thicker than the remainingportion of the probe 24. The probe 24 can be made of or is coated with aconductive material such as steel, nickel, aluminum, precious metals(e.g., gold, silver, platinum, copper, and the like) or a combinationthereof. In an embodiment, the probe 24 can be designed so that only aportion of the surface of the distal end of the probe 24 is conductive(e.g., only the tip of the probe), and the remaining surface is coveredwith a nonconductive material, although the probe 24 is conductive. Ingeneral the tips of the probes 24 are directed to the target volume 42.

The configuration of the distal ends of the probes forms an electricfield that the fiber passes into, thus the electric field formed as aresult of the configuration of the distal ends define at least a portionof or the entire target volume and focuses the fiber into the targetvolume. The design of the embodiments of the present disclosure greatlyreduces the density of fibers that would accumulate on a traditionalflat surface.

The structure and dimensions (e.g., thickness) of the nonconductivestructure 26 can be very depending upon the collection structure 22. Inan embodiment, the nonconductive structure 26 can be thin (e.g., thickenough to separate a conductive and the nonconductive structure 26) orthick (e.g., encompassing a large portion of the collection device 22).The structure and the dimensions of the nonconductive structure 26 canvary upon the application. A number of embodiments of the nonconductivestructure 26 are described herein and in the Figures. In an embodiment,the nonconductive structure 26 can be a thin material that separates thenonconductive structure 26 from a conductive surface underneath thenonconductive structure 26. In an embodiment, the nonconductivestructure 26 can be a self-supported thin material where an open area(without any material) is behind the nonconductive structure 26. Thenonconductive structure 26 can be made of a material such as foams,plastics, rubber, wood products, and combinations thereof. The height(y-axis) of the nonconductive structure 26 can be about 5 to 10 cm orabout 20 to 50 cm. The depth x-axis) of the nonconductive structure 26can be about 5 to 75 cm, about 20 to 50 cm, or about 15 to 35 cm. Thewidth (z-axis) of the nonconductive structure 26 can be about 5 to 100cm. Additional details regarding the collection structure will bedescribed below. The thickness of the nonconductive structure 26 can beabout a nanometer to 10 or more centimeters (e.g., about 20, about 30,about 40, or about 50 cm), and can be selected based on the design ofthe device. When the nonconductive structure 26 is flat, the thicknessis about a nanometer to 10 or more centimeters (e.g., about 20, about30, about 40, or about 50 cm) and can vary in the x-, y-, and/orz-direction.

FIGS. 1.2A to 1.2D illustrate cross-sections of embodiments of thecollection structure 22 a, 22 b, 22 c, and 22 d, respectively. FIG. 1.2Aillustrates a nonconductive structure 40 that includes a plurality ofprobes 24, where the distal ends of the probes 24 extend from thenonconductive structure 40. The distal ends define a target volume 42.The target volume 42 includes a first boundary 44 defined by the distalends of the probes 24. A second boundary 46 is on the side closest tothe where the device 12 (not shown) would be located. The nonconductivestructure 40 has a substantially C-type cross-section, and inthree-dimensions could be a semi-spherical shape.

FIG. 1.2B illustrates a nonconductive structure 50 that includes aplurality of probes 24, where the distal ends of the probes 24 extendfrom the nonconductive structure 50. The distal ends define a targetvolume 52. The target volume 52 includes a first boundary 54 defined bythe distal ends of the probes 24. A second boundary 56 is on the sideclosest to the where the device 12 (not shown) would be located. Thenonconductive structure 50 has a substantially V-type cross-section, andin three-dimensions could be a cone shape.

FIG. 1.2C illustrates a nonconductive structure 60 that includes aplurality of probes 24, where the distal ends of the probes 24 extendfrom the nonconductive structure 60. The distal ends define a targetvolume 62. The target volume 62 includes a first boundary 64 defined bythe distal ends of the probes 24. A second boundary 66 is on the sideclosest to the where the device 12 (not shown) would be located. Thenonconductive structure 60 has a substantially C-type cross-section,where the “C” is not a smooth curve, rather a number of straightportions connected to one another at angles to that set of straightportions forms a substantially C-type cross-section.

FIG. 1.2D illustrates a nonconductive structure 70 that includes aplurality of probes 24, where the distal ends of the probes 24 extendfrom the nonconductive structure 70. The distal ends define a targetvolume 72. The target volume 72 includes a first boundary 74 defined bythe distal ends of the probes 24. A second boundary 76 is on the sideclosest to the where the device 12 (not shown) would be located. Thenonconductive structure 70 is flat having probes 26 of different lengthsextending from the nonconductive structure 70.

An embodiment of the target volume (e.g., some are shown in FIGS. 1.2Ato 1.2D) can have a first boundary of the target volume having across-sectional shape such as: a substantially concave shape, asubstantially cone shape, a substantially hemi-spherical shape, asubstantially semi-spherical shape, an arcuate shape, a semi-polygonalshape, a substantially V-shape (FIG. 1.2B), a substantially C-shape(FIG. 1.2A and C), and a substantially U-shape. In an embodiment thethree-dimensional shapes of the foregoing cross-sections can varyconsiderable, for example, the three-dimensional shape could extend thecross-section along the width (z-axis) for a specific distance and theheight and depth are held constant so that cross-sections taken alongthe width are the same. In another example, the three-dimensional shapecould extend the cross-section along the width (z-axis) for a specificdistance and then height and/or depth can be changed so thatcross-sections taken along the width are different. In this regard, thefirst boundary of the target volume has a three dimensional shape such:as a substantially cone shape, a substantially hemi-spherical shape, anda substantially semi-spherical shape. In each of the shapes above, afirst set of the distal ends are further away from the tip of thestructure than a second set of the distal ends. The word “substantially”used to modify the shape can include the actual shape as well asmodifications to the shape such as a smooth curve (FIG. 1.2A); a set ofconnected straight portion that can be aligned at angles to form anarcuate surface (FIG. 1.1C); and/or about 50%, about 60%, about 70%,about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 100%, of the original shape.In other words, the shape can vary greatly, but all the shapes have arecessed portion relative to the tip of the device so that the fiber(s)are drawn into a target volume.

An embodiment of the non-conductive structure (e.g., some are shown inFIGS. 1.2A to 1.2D) can have a cross-sectional shape such: as asubstantially concave shape, a substantially cone shape, a substantiallyhemi-spherical shape, a substantially semi-spherical shape, an arcuateshape, a semi-polygonal shape, a substantially V-shape (FIG. 1.2B), asubstantially C-shape (FIG. 1.2A and C), and a substantially U-shape. Inan embodiment the three-dimensional shapes of the foregoingcross-sections can vary considerably, for example, the three-dimensionalshape could extend the cross-section along the width (z-axis) for aspecific distance and the height and depth are held constant so thatcross-sections taken along the width are the same. In another example,the three-dimensional shape could extend the cross-section along thewidth (z-axis) for a specific distance and then height and/or depth canbe changed so that cross-sections taken along the width are different.In this regard, the non-conductive structure has a three dimensionalshape such as: a substantially cone shape, a substantiallyhemi-spherical shape, and a substantially semi-spherical shape. In eachof the shapes above, a first set of the distal ends are further awayfrom the tip of the structure than a second set of the distal ends. Theword “substantially” used to modify the shape can include the actualshape as well as modifications to the shape such as a smooth curve (FIG.1.2A); a set of connected straight portion that can be aligned at anglesto form an arcuate surface (FIG. 1.1C); and/or, about 50%, about 60%,about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 100%, of theoriginal shape. In other words, the shape can vary greatly, but all theshapes have a recessed portion relative to the tip of the device so thatthe fiber(s) are drawn into a target volume.

In an embodiment, the target volume has a longest dimension and a seconddimension that is perpendicular to the longest dimension at the widestpoint, wherein the longest dimension is about 5 to 50 cm and the seconddimension is about 3 to 50 cm and the target volume is about 15 to 2500cm³.

FIGS. 1.3A and 1.3B illustrate cross-sections of embodiments of thestructure 22 e and 22 f. FIG. 1.3A illustrates a nonconductive structure80 that includes a plurality of probes 24, where the distal ends of theprobes 24 extend from the nonconductive structure 80. The distal endsdefine a target volume 82. The probes 24 are connected to a potentialsource 88 (e.g., power supply) via an electrical connection 86 (e.g., awire). The electrical connection 86 is connected to the probes 24 on theside of the nonconductive structure 80 opposite the target volume 82.The nonconductive structure 80 can be disposed in holding structure 84,where the probes 24 are not touching anything other than the electricalconnection (e.g., free standing in air).

FIG. 1.3B illustrates a nonconductive structure 90 that includes aplurality of probes 24, where the distal ends of the probes 24 extendfrom the nonconductive structure 90. The distal ends define a targetvolume 92. The probes 24 are connected to a potential source 98 (e.g.,power supply) via an electrical connection 96 (e.g., a wire). Theelectrical connection 96 is connected to the probes 24 on the side ofthe nonconductive structure 90 opposite the target volume 82. Thenonconductive structure 90 is disposed on a support material 94 (e.g.,plastic, foam, wood materials, rubber, and a combination thereof),wherein the probes 24 extend through the support material 94 to contactthe electrical connection 96.

FIGS. 1.3A and 1.3B illustrate only two possible configurations of thepresent disclosure. It should be noted that multiple electricalconnections can be used to connect sets of the probes to differentpotential sources so that different potentials can be applied (e.g.,where the potentials are held constant or varied (e.g., to control theformation of the mesh).

FIGS. 1.4A to 1.4C illustrate cross-sections of the A-A plane of thestructure shown in FIG. 1.2A and these views are recited as 22 a 1, 22 a2, and 22 a 3, respectively. FIGS. 1.4A to 1.4C illustrate that thedimensions of the nonconductive structure 40 can vary and that thenumber of probes 24 can vary. FIGS. 1.5A to 1.5D illustrate perspectiveviews of shapes of the collection structure without probes. Thus, FIGS.1.1 to 1.3D show only a cross-section of the collection structure, butFIGS. 1.4A to 1.5D show that the cross-sections can be extended intothree-dimensions in a number of ways to produce a variety of collectionstructures. The design and selection of the collection structure can beguided by the desired three-dimensional shape, porosity, dimensions, andthe like of the fiber mesh.

As described briefly above, an embodiment of the present disclosureincludes forming a fibrous mesh using an electrospinning device asdescribed herein. The method includes applying a potential differencebetween a tip (e.g. a positive bias) of a device and a plurality ofconductive probes (e.g., at ground) on a structure. A fiber (e.g.,nanofiber) is drawn from the tip towards the target volume through thesecond boundary to form the uncompressed fibrous mesh. In an embodiment,a single fiber of a single material can be used to make the fibrous meshor a single fiber made of different materials as a function of thelength of the fiber can used. In another embodiment, multiple fibersfrom one or more tips using the same or different materials can be usedto form (e.g., simultaneously or sequentially) the fibrous mesh.Additional details regarding parameters such as the potentials,materials, and the like are described herein and in the Example.

An embodiment of the uncompressed fibrous mesh can include one or morefibers (e.g., nanofibers and/or microfibers (e.g., 500 nm to about 500μm)) made of one or more materials. The uncompressed fibrous meshincludes space (e.g., about 85%, about 95%, or more or the volume of themesh) for air or a fluid within the fibrous mesh, whereas a compressedfibrous mesh has most (e.g., more than 90%, 95%, or 99%) of the spacefor air or fluid is removed. In an embodiment, adjacent layers of thefibrous mesh are not touching one another and space (e.g., air or fluid)can be disposed between the layers for the uncompressed fibrous mesh. Inan embodiment, the uncompressed fibrous mesh can include about 5 to 15%fiber, where the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a volume that is about 50cm³ to 1800 cm³. In an embodiment, the amount of fiber occupies about 5to 20% of the volume of the uncompressed fibrous mesh. In an embodiment,uncompressed fibrous mesh has a longest dimension, a second dimensionthat is perpendicular the longest dimension at the widest point, and athird dimension that is perpendicular the longest and second dimensions,where the longest dimension is about 1 to 15 cm, the second dimension isabout 1 to 15 cm, and the third dimension is about 1 to 10 cm. In anembodiment, the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a porosity of about 80 to90%.

EXAMPLES

While embodiments of the present disclosure are described in connectionwith the Examples and the corresponding text and figures, there is nointent to limit the disclosure to the embodiments in these descriptions.On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications,and equivalents included within the spirit and scope of embodiments ofthe present disclosure.

Example 1 Brief Introduction

A limiting factor of traditional electrospinning is that the electrospunscaffolds include entirely of tightly packed nanofiber layers that onlyprovide a superficial porous structure due to the sheet-like assemblyprocess. This unavoidable characteristic hinders cell infiltration andgrowth throughout the nanofibrous scaffolds. Numerous strategies havebeen tried to overcome this challenge, including the incorporation ofnanoparticles, using larger microfibers, or removing embedded salt orwater-soluble fibers to increase porosity. However, these methods stillproduce sheet-like nanofibrous scaffolds, failing to create a porousthree-dimensional scaffold with good structural integrity. Thus, we havedeveloped a three-dimensional cotton ball-like electrospun scaffold thatincludes an accumulation of nanofibers in a low density and uncompressedmanner. Instead of a traditional flat-plate collector, a groundedspherical dish and an array of needle-like probes were used to create aFocused, Low density, Uncompressed nanoFiber (FLUF) mesh scaffold.Scanning electron microscopy showed that the cotton ball-like scaffoldincludes electrospun nanofibers with a similar diameter but larger poresand less dense structure compared to the traditional electrospunscaffolds. In addition, laser confocal microscopy demonstrated an openporosity and loosely packed structure throughout the depth of the cottonball-like scaffold, contrasting the superficially porous and tightlypacked structure of the traditional electrospun scaffold. Cells seededon the cotton ball-like scaffold infiltrated into the scaffold after 7days of growth, compared to no penetrating growth for the traditionalelectrospun scaffold. Quantitative analysis showed approximately a 40%higher growth rate for cells on the cotton ball-like scaffold over a 7day period, possibly due to the increased space for in-growth within thethree-dimensional scaffolds. Overall, this method assembles ananofibrous scaffold that is more advantageous for highly porousinterconnectivity and demonstrates great potential for tackling currentchallenges of electrospun scaffolds.

Introduction:

Traditional electrospinning produces flat, highly interconnectedscaffolds consisting of densely packed nanofibers. These electrospunscaffolds can support the adhesion, growth, and function of various celltypes, while also promoting their maturation into specific tissuelineages, such as bone [1-3], cartilage [4], tendons, ligaments [5],skin [6,7], neurons [8], liver [9], smooth muscle [10], striated muscle[11, 12], and even cornea [13]. In addition, the morphology ofelectrospun nanofibrous scaffolds is highly tunable by simply modifyingany number of fabrication parameters, such as concentration of polymersolution or voltage between nozzle and collector [14]. This is veryadvantageous for tissue engineering systems because it has been shownthat the fiber diameter [15], pore size [16], and even solvent used [17]affect cellular response to electrospun biomaterials. However, a majorlimitation of traditional electrospun scaffolds is that they havetightly packed layers of nanofibers with only a superficially porousnetwork, resulting in confinement to sheet-like formations only. Thisunavoidable characteristic restricts cell infiltration and growththrough the scaffolds. Thus, it is imperative to develop an innovativestrategy capable of fabricating an electrospun scaffold with a stablethree dimensional structure, while exhibiting nanofibrous morphologiesand deep, interconnected pores. Such a scaffold would better mimic theconfiguration of native extracellular matrix (ECM), thereby maximizingthe likelihood of long-term cell survival and generation of functionaltissue within a biomimetic environment.

The techniques used for traditional electrospinning employ a static,flat-plate collector placed at a set distance away from a charged nozzlecontaining a polymer solution. The resulting electrospun scaffolds arecomposed of nanofibrous layers arranged in a tightly packedconformation, which allows cellular growth and infiltration near thesuperficial surface but not deep within the internal structure. Manypotential solutions have been investigated to improve this scaffolddeficiency; however, the paradoxical nature of the electrospinningprocess works against achieving an ideal formation that allows for bothgood cell attachment and deep cellular infiltration. Specifically, asthe fiber diameter decreases to the nanoscale range for optimal cellattachment, the porosity decreases as well, thereby preventing deepcellular infiltration that is most easily overcome by reverting back tomicroscaled fiber diameters [18]. This drawback has previouslydiscouraged exclusively electrospun scaffolds, and has led toexploration of other electrospun nanofiber uses, such as coatings formore porous scaffold material including microfibers [19].

Of the previous methods explored for improving cellular infiltration,one common strategy utilizes salts dissolved in the polymer solution tocreate specific pore sizes throughout the scaffold by leaching out theparticulates after electrospinning [20, 21]. This forms porous spaces inthe scaffold; however, the spaces act as a divider for creating separatelayers within the scaffold, much like layering multiple scaffolds [22,23], which does not provide uniform morphology and stability. Anotherprevious strategy involves co-electrospinning the desired polymer withan easily water-soluble material and then dissolving it out [24]. Thisremoves continuous sections within the scaffold; however, the suddenremoval of these fibers causes reorganization and contraction of thefibers, which often leads to blockage of the newly created pores [16]and collapses the mesh network of the scaffold [25]. Another approach isto electrospray hydrogels into the scaffold as it is being formed [25].This creates pockets of hydrogels through which cells can infiltratedeep into the scaffold. However, this method does not produce a truethree-dimensional scaffold with interconnected pores because the sprayedhydrogel is difficult to disperse evenly, again leading to a non-uniformscaffold that is unlikely to induce consistent growth throughout. Inaddition, using rotating drums as collectors creates a hollow shape;however, it still collects nanofibers as tightly packed layers [26].

The main reason that the above methods do not completely overcome thecurrent challenges of electrospun scaffolds is because they areadaptations of the traditional electrospinning technique. Thus, for allcurrent modification methods, the creation of an electrospun nanofiberinvolves a bead of polymer solution being drawn into a nanoscale fiberdue to the applied electric charge. As the nanofiber is dispersed, itthen follows the electric potential gradient from the highest (chargednozzle) to the lowest (grounded voltage source), leading to depositionon the nearby collector. As a result of this force, subsequent fiberlayers are deposited one on top of the other as two dimensionalformations that ultimately form a densely packed structure. Therefore,even though each deposited layer can be viewed as having pores within aplanar, two dimensional space, these pores do not continue into thecross-section orthogonal to the layers (i.e., depth of the scaffold),limiting cellular infiltration to only the superficial layers.

Overall, all current strategies to create electrospun scaffolds collectnanofibers in an unfocused, planar manner, which causes subsequentlayers to adopt a densely packed network and prevents the formation ofthree dimensional structures with good stability. Therefore, to overcomethese obstacles, we hypothesize that electrospun scaffolds can befabricated as three dimensional structures if the nanofibers are allowedto accumulate in a more open space that still maintains a focused shape,without forcing the fibers to deposit side-by-side. In this Example, wedemonstrate an innovative strategy for creating a Focused, Low density,and Uncompressed nanoFibrous (FLUF) mesh by using a collection systemconsisting of an array of metal probes embedded in a non-conductivespherical dish. This encourages the electrospun nanofibers to intertwineand accumulate in the air between the probes, while the spherical dishfocuses them into a constrained area. This combination results in theelectrospun nanofibers adopting a shape similar to a cotton ball withexcellent three dimensional structural stability.

Materials and Methods: Material Fabrication Electrospinning TraditionalFlat-Plate Electrospun Scaffolds

Poly-e-caprolactone (PCL) pellets (M_(n): 80,000; Sigma Aldrich, St.Louis, Mo.) were dissolved at a ratio of 225 mg/ml in a solvent solutionof 1:1 (v:v) chloroform and methanol under constant stirring until themixture was clear, viscous, and homogenous. PCL solution was poured intoa syringe capped with a 25 gauge blunt-tipped needle nozzle. The syringewas loaded into a syringe pump (KD Scientific, Holliston, Mass.) with aset flow rate of 1.0 ml/hr. The flat-plate electrospun scaffolds werethen fabricated by traditional methodology as previously described [27].Briefly, the nozzle was placed 28 cm from a grounded, flat sheet ofaluminum foil and attached to the positive terminal of a high voltagegenerator (Gamma High-Voltage Research, Ormond Beach, Fla.). A voltageof +21 kV was then applied 1 mm from the needle opening, and thescaffold was electrospun as a sheet onto the grounded collector.

Electrospinning Cotton Ball-Like Electrospun Scaffolds

Similar to traditional electrospinning, PCL pellets were dissolved at aratio of 75 mg/ml in a solvent solution of 1:1 (v:v) chloroform andmethanol and transferred to a syringe chamber. The filled syringe fittedwith a 25 gauge blunt-tipped needle nozzle was then placed into asyringe pump with a set flow rate of 2.0 ml/hr and at a distance of 15cm from the front plane of the collector. The nozzle was attached to thepositive terminal of a high voltage generator through which a voltage of+15 kV was applied 1 mm from the needle opening, and the threedimensional electrospun scaffold was fabricated onto a custom-madecollector.

The collector for the cotton ball-like electrospun scaffolds wasspecially crafted by embedding an array of 1.5 inch long stainless steelprobes in a spherical foam dish (diameter: 8 in., shell thickness: 0.125in.; Fibre Craft, Niles, Ill.) backed by a stainless steel lining toprovide an electrical ground. The needles were placed at 2 inchintervals radiating from the center of the dish in five equidistantdirections. The nanofibers were allowed to accumulate throughout theelectrospinning process and then removed with a glass rod.

Scaffold Characterization Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Imaging

The ePCL scaffolds were mounted on an aluminum stub and sputter coatedwith gold and palladium. A Philips SEM 510 (FEI, Hillsboro, Oreg.) at anaccelerating voltage of 20 kV was used to image the scaffolds, and thefiber diameters were measured using GIMP 2.6 for Windows.

Confocal Microscope Imaging

To visually contrast nanofiber network organization in the traditionalflat-plate electrospun scaffold with the cotton ball-like electrospunscaffold, scaffolds were incubated in 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole(DAPI; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) for 4 hours. Scaffolds were thenimaged using a Zeiss LSM 710 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope(Thornwood, N.Y.) and analyzed using Zen 2009 software. Since DAPI isstrongly attracted to the hydrophobic PCL, the fluorescence clearlyilluminated the nanofibrous structures of the scaffolds.

Cell Culturing

INS-1 (832/13) cells, a kind gift from Dr. John A. Corbett (Departmentof Biochemistry, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis.), werecultured in RPMI-1640 media (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetalbovine serum (FBS, Atlanta Biologicals, Lawrenceville, Ga.), 2 mML-glutamine, 10 mM HEPES, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, and 55 μM2-mercaptoethanol (Invitrogen). Cells were expanded to 80-90% confluencyunder normal culture conditions (37° C., 95% relative humidity, 5% CO₂)before seeding on the electrospun scaffolds.

The traditional flat-plate ePCL scaffolds were cut into 0.5 cm discs andplaced in 96-well plates according to a method described previously[27]. The size of the cotton ball-like ePCL scaffolds were normalized toa 0.5 cm diameter by trimming with a sterile razor and then placed in a96-well plate. Sterilization was performed by soaking the electrospunscaffolds in a solution of 70% ethanol and 30% phosphate buffered saline(PBS) for 12 hours under sterile conditions, followed by a serialdilution in PBS over 6 hours, and a final soaking in PBS for 12 hours.All scaffolds were then immersed overnight in the media formulationspecified above to allow for protein adsorption.

Prior to cell seeding, excess cell culture media from the overnightsoaking were removed for all scaffolds. To study cellular infiltrationinto the scaffolds and measure cellular proliferation, a cell suspensionof 64,000 INS-1 cells was added to each scaffold. The scaffolds wereincubated for 2 hours in a humidified incubator and then transferred to48 well tissue culture plates. An additional 400 μl media were added toeach well, and the media was changed every 48 hours. Cellular behaviorwas analyzed by collecting the scaffolds after 1, 3, and 7 days.

Histology

To quantify the extent of cellular infiltration, scaffolds were removedfrom media at the appropriate time points and fixed in formalinovernight. They were then soaked in a 20% sucrose solution, which wasexchanged with a 50% sucrose solution 24 hours later. After soakingovernight, the scaffolds were embedded in Histo-Prep embedding medium(Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.) and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen.The resulting blocks were cut into 20 μm sections using a Microm HM 505ECryostat with CryoJane Tape-Transfer (Instrumedics, Richmond, Ill.), andmounted onto Superfrost/Plus microscope slides (Fisher Scientific). Tovisualize cellular nuclei and cytoplasm, the sections were stained withHemotoxylin and Eosin dyes (American MasterTech Sci., Lodi, CA). Imageswere then taken using a Nikon eclipse TE2000-S microscope (Melville,N.Y.) and analyzed using NIS-elements AR 2.30 software.

Cell Proliferation Analysis

At the specified time points, cellular proliferation was quantified byusing the cell counting kit-8 reagent (CCK-8; Dojindo MolecularTechnologies, Rockville, Md.) per manufacturer's instructions. Briefly,at each time point, the CCK-8 reagent was added to the specified well ina 1:10 ratio of the total cell culture volume and incubated for 4 hoursin a humidified incubator. Each sample was stored in a 4° C. fridgeuntil all time points were collected. The absorbance (450 nm) for allsamples was measured together using a microplate reader (Synergy HK,BIO-TEK Instruments, Winooski, Vt.), and the cell number was calibratedagainst absorbance standards of known cell concentrations.

Statistical Analysis

All experiments were performed in quadruplicate at least threeindependent times, and the results presented are representative datasets. All values were expressed as means±standard deviations. All datawere compared with one-way ANOVA tests using SPSS software. Tukeymultiple comparisons test was performed to evaluate significantdifferences between pairs. A value of p<0.05 was consideredstatistically significant.

Results and Discussion:

The increasing number of roles for synthetic biomaterials in tissueengineering has precipitated new strategies for creating extracellularmatrix (ECM) mimicking microenvironments. Among the many biomaterialfabrication methods currently in use, electrospinning has repeatedlybeen shown to produce biocompatible polymer scaffolds for a variety ofapplications [28, 29]. Electrospinning is particularly attractivebecause it is a versatile and cost-effective method to repeatedlyfabricate nanofibrous scaffolds using synthetic means. However, onelimiting factor of the existing electrospinning methods is an inabilityto simultaneously incorporate nanofibrous morphologies, while stillmaintaining deep interconnected pores within a stable three dimensionalnetwork structure. This presents a significant obstacle for cellularinfiltration and growth deep into the scaffolds, limiting the potentialof electrospun scaffolds. Thus, there is a critical need for newtransformative electrospinning strategies that provide an ECM mimickingmicroenvironment for cell based tissue engineering applications.Therefore, in this study, we developed an electrospun scaffold thatincorporates a 1) three dimensional, cotton ball-like structure, 2)loosely packed, uninterrupted mesh of nanofibers, 3) deep,interconnected pores in all three dimensions, and 4) good structuralstability.

The basic method to electrospin polymer fibers is to place a groundedcollector near a charged syringe nozzle, which contains a conductivepolymer solution. As the applied voltage is increased, the solutionovercomes the frictional forces, resulting in a spinning jet of polymerfluid being ejected from the needle. This ejected solution evaporates asit travels over the projected distance, depositing a mesh of fibers onthe collector (FIG. 2.1 a). The resulting fiber characteristics arelargely determined by the solution viscosity, flow rate, and distancebetween nozzle and collector. (Low viscosities, low flow rates, andlarge distances generally result in smaller diameters.) However, theoverall scaffold characteristics are largely determined by thecollector.

On a traditional flat-plate collector, the grounded charge is spreaduniformly over a large area. As a result, a group of fibers is depositedside-by-side in one layer, and each subsequent layer is deposited on topof the existing layers. However, each layer is still strongly attractedto the grounded collector, thus compressing the layers below. Thiscreates a flat, sheet-like structure with densely packed fiber layersand superficial, planar pores, which do not continue deep into thescaffold (FIG. 1.2 a). While the accumulated fiber layers do provide athickness to the scaffold, the lack of space between adjacent layersessentially creates a two dimensional scaffold, especially sincecellular growth and infiltration are limited to the superficial layers.

Therefore, to create an electrospun scaffold with nanofibrousmorphologies and deep, interconnected pores incorporated within a morerealized three dimensional structure, we replaced the traditionalcollector with a non-conductive spherical dish that has an array ofembedded metal probes (FIG. 2.1 b). This innovative arrangement evenlydispersed and concentrated the grounded charge on the probes. The probesare then able to collect the nanofibers between them in mid-air, and thelack of a uniform charge throughout the collector allows nanofiberlayers to settle next to the previously deposited layers withoutcompressing the scaffold. In addition, the spherical dish helps collectthe nanofibers in a focused area, thereby accumulating them as a fluffy,three-dimensional structure with good stability (FIG. 2.2 b).

Comparing FIGS. 2.2 a and 2.2 b, it is clear that modifying thecollector system has a dramatic influence on overall scaffoldcharacteristics. As a result of the uniformly concentrated charge of thetraditional collector, the generated scaffold has a very tightly packedstructure assembled as in a flat, sheet-like arrangement. In contrast,the spherical dish and metal array collector creates a Focused, Lowdensity, and Uncompressed nanoFibrous (FLUF) mesh with tremendous threedimensional depth. Thus, the collector provides an alternative strategyfor overcoming one of the current challenges facing electrospinningfabrication, as new scaffolds were created with a stable, interconnectednanofibrous architecture in multiple planes. Herein, we have designatedthese new three dimensional assemblies as FLUF scaffolds, which veryclosely resemble the macrostructure of a cotton ball (FIG. 2.2 c). As anadded benefit, the cotton ball-like electrospun scaffolds generated forthis study took less than 20 minutes to accumulate, whereas it typicallytakes many hours, maybe even days, to collect a similarly dimensionedscaffold using the traditional fabrication method.

Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) was chosen as the model polymer for thisstudy because it is biocompatible and been FDA approved for use inbiomedical applications. Furthermore, PCL can be readily electrospuninto nanofibers (ePCL), which can support the growth of chondrocytes,skeletal muscle cells, smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells,fibroblasts, and human mesenchymal stem cells [10, 15, 27, 30-35]. Forthis study, we evaluated the biological response of the ePCL electrospunscaffolds with a rat insulinoma INS-1 (832/13) cells (INS-1 cells) cellline. INS-1 cells are a very robust cell line that allow for quick andeasily obtained biological analysis. Furthermore, this cell line wasdeveloped to mimic β-cell function [36-38], which has great utility forstudying pancreatic tissue engineering applications, a rapidly emergingarea of interest. Thus, to accurately compare nanofiber characteristicsand cellular performance in this study, PCL was electrospun using boththe traditional flat-plate collector and our spherical dish and metalarray collector, followed by biological evaluation of both scaffoldtypes with INS-1 cells.

ECM functionality is highly regulated by complex cellular interactionswith different fibrillar proteins that perform biological activities atthe nanoscale dimension [39-42]. Furthermore, numerous reports havedemonstrated a positive influence of nanofibrous biomaterial structureson cellular activity [15, 43]. Hence, the scaffold parameters designedfor this study were specifically chosen to create electrospun nanofibersthat were similar in scale to native ECM macromolecules. As demonstratedin FIG. 2.3, the majority of fiber diameters in the traditional ePCLscaffolds were between 300-400 nm, while the cotton ball-like ePCLscaffolds displayed fiber morphologies with an approximate diameter of500 nm. Therefore, both of these were within the typical size range ofcollagen fiber bundles found in native ECM [44]. Additionally, even withthe different parameters (PCL concentration, flow rate, and voltage),the 2D and 3D nanofiber characteristics were similar. However, theoverall scaffold morphologies were significantly affected by thecollectors: the traditional collector generated a tightly packed fibrousnetwork, while the new collector was able to create an uncompressed,loosely packed, and more porous nanofibrous structure.

While the influence of nanofiber diameters on cellular behavior is wellestablished, the effect of pore sizes is not so clear. For cellulargrowth and vascularization in bone, pore sizes of >300 μm have beenrecommended [45], while fibroblasts have been shown to prefer a poresize of 6-20 μm [16]. Even though optimal pore size is tissue-specific,a minimum threshold for porosity with interconnectivity throughout isstill needed within tissue engineered scaffolds to ensure that localizedcells and nutrients have access to the internal environment, therebycreating an ECM-like three dimensional structure. However, traditionalelectrospinning is not conducive to the simultaneous production offibers at the nanoscale size with large pore size interconnectivity.Previously, this has resulted in the traditional electrospun scaffoldsrequiring post-fabrication modifications. However, these modificationstypically alter the nanofiber characteristics and scaffold stability[20, 21, 24, 25]. Additionally, previous efforts for modifyingelectrospun scaffolds have focused on superficial, planar pores, ratherthan multi-planar pores to allow for increased cellular infiltration.Consequently, this study provides a comparative look at the fabricationand increased benefit of multi-planar pores via our cotton ball-likeePCL scaffolds in relation to superficially porous scaffolds asgenerated by traditional electrospinning means.

To identify the superficial pore characteristics, we imaged bothscaffolds with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Examining the SEMimages in FIG. 2.3, the nanofiber densities in the two scaffolds can beeasily differentiated; there were significantly fewer nanofibersoccupying the same space in the cotton ball-like ePCL scaffold comparedto the traditional ePCL scaffold. Furthermore, the traditional ePCLscaffold consistently displayed pores <1 μm, while the cotton ball-likeePCL scaffold had a typical pore size between 2-5 μm. We believe thatthe increased pore sizes in the cotton ball-like scaffold will allowcells enough room to deeply infiltrate the scaffold, while stillproviding the needed interconnectivity to bridge the pores acrossmultiple nanofibers.

While the SEM images analyzed the superficial regions of bothelectrospun scaffold types, questions still remained about the internalstructure and arrangement. Specifically, qualitative analysis of thenanofibrous characteristics deep within the scaffolds were still needed.Addressing this issue, we decided to incubate the ePCL samples in DAPI.When illuminated at a wavelength of 360 nm, the resulting fluorescencewas able to clearly show the contours of the nanofibrous morphologies.Thus, we used confocal microscopy under a fluorescent filter to studythe morphologies of both scaffold types throughout their thicknesses. Asdemonstrated in FIG. 2.4, the traditional ePCL scaffold had a verytightly packed nanofibrous structure, whereas the cotton ball-like ePCLscaffold had a much more open structure throughout its depth. Thesecontrasting nanofiber characteristics demonstrate the effect of thesignificantly different collector systems used; the spherical dish andmetal array collector helped accumulate the nanofibers in anuncompressed manner, which allowed for more separation betweensubsequent nanofiber layers. Remarkably, the traditional ePCL scaffoldscould only be imaged to a depth of −10 μm, while the cotton ball-likeePCL scaffolds enabled viewing at a depth up to −35 μm. This indicatedthat the increased density of the traditional ePCL scaffold preventedthe excitation light from the confocal microscope from deeplypenetrating the scaffold. Conversely, the less-dense and more porouscotton ball-like ePCL scaffold was more apt to deeper confocalpenetration. This stark contrast in confocal microscopy imaging furtherverifies the advantageous design of the un-dense, loosely packed networkstructure of the cotton ball-like scaffolds for cellular infiltrationcompared to the dense, tightly packed nature of traditional scaffolds.To the best of our knowledge, this combination of an uninterruptednetwork of nanofibers coupled with deep, multi-planar pores in a stablethree dimensional structure has never been demonstrated before in anas-spun, unmodified electrospun scaffold.

An ideal tissue engineered scaffold should promote both good cellularattachment and infiltration, and the balanced combination of both isneeded to eventually promote whole tissue formation. Achieving thisbalance in electrospun scaffolds, though, has proven to be elusive.Specifically, traditionally electrospun scaffolds allow cells to attachsuperficially; however, they do not provide the large pore sizes neededfor substantial cellular infiltration [7, 19, 46]. In addition, currentmodification techniques to improve infiltration have been found toimpede scaffold stability [23, 25]. Thus, as described above, we havedesigned a spherical dish and metal array collector that is capable ofsuccessfully combining nanofibrous morphologies with deep pores in astable cotton ball-like structure. To identify and contrast cellularresponses on the traditional and cotton ball-like ePCL scaffolds, weseeded INS-1 cells and studied their infiltration and growth. Toevaluate the cellular response, both scaffolds (each with a diameter of0.5 cm) were seeded with 64,000 cells, which is ˜90% confluence on thetop surface. This encouraged cell growth to be directed into thescaffold, thereby demonstrating the relative capacity for in-growthwithin both scaffold types.

INS-1 cells on the traditional ePCL scaffolds did not infiltrate belowthe most superficial layer, even after 7 days, whereas cells on thecotton ball-like ePCL scaffolds gradually infiltrated deep into thescaffold (FIG. 2.5). On day 1, the INS-1 cells had attached to thesurface of the cotton ball-like ePCL scaffold, and their infiltrationwas limited to the top surface (FIG. 2.5 b). By day 3, most of the cellshad infiltrated past the superficial threshold (−125 μm), and a few hadeven infiltrated deep into the scaffold to a depth of ˜260 μm (FIG. 5d). Furthermore, by day 7, cells were present throughout the scaffold ata depth of ˜300 μm from the surface, and the number of cells hadincreased tremendously, both near the surface and deep within thescaffold (FIG. 2.5 f). These promising results correlated directly tothe more open, loosely packed network structure shown in FIG. 2.4 b,which allowed the cells an easier path for deep infiltration and greatercell proliferation. In contrast, the tightly packed structure oftraditional ePCL scaffolds (FIGS. 2.4 a,c,e,) presents obstructions thatlimit cell attachment to the top-most surface layer.

Next, the cellular response was qualitatively evaluated, and as shown inFIG. 2.6, cell growth between days 1 and 3 was similar on both thetraditional and cotton ball-like ePCL scaffolds. The cell number on thetraditional ePCL scaffolds increased to 123.18±6.23% on day 3 (asnormalized to the cell number on day 1), while the cotton ball-like ePCLscaffolds increased to 130.69±25.49%. The most striking change, though,was observed between days 3 and 7. Over this time, the cell numberincreased to 137.35±3.14% on day 7 (as normalized to Day 1) on thetraditional ePCL scaffolds, whereas the value for the cotton ball-likeePCL scaffolds jumped to 178.96±37.09%. These results, combined with thequalitative histology images in FIG. 2.5, strongly demonstrate theinfluence of the cotton ball-like ePCL scaffold for increasing cellularinfiltration and growth. Because of the high initial seeding density,cells on the traditional ePCL scaffolds quickly proliferated to fill theavailable space on the top surface of the scaffold by day 3, after whichthe growth rate slowed due to poor cellular infiltration. Hence, therewas only ˜11% growth between days 3 and 7 on the traditional ePCLscaffold. Meanwhile, the greater thickness and more open, porousnanofibrous network of the cotton ball-like ePCL scaffolds with threedimensionality (FIG. 2.2 b) allowed space for continuous cellularinfiltration (FIGS. 2.5 b, 2.5 d, and 2.5 f) and growth throughout,resulting in the number of attached cells increasing ˜37% between days 3and 7. These cumulative data conclusively prove that the cottonball-like ePCL scaffolds provide a better host environment for cellularinfiltration and growth than the traditional ePCL scaffolds.

CONCLUSION

Current electrospinning techniques do not simultaneously provide deep,interconnected pores within a stable, three-dimensional nanofibrousstructure. To address this problem, we have developed an electrospinningtechnique using a dish with an embedded array of metal probes to createa focused accumulation of ePCL nanofibers that assemble together in acotton ball-like structure. SEM and confocal microscopy showed a moreporous and spacious nanofiber scaffold. Histology and quantitative cellgrowth demonstrated increased cell penetration and proliferation for thecotton ball-like scaffold over the traditional ePCL scaffold. Thisstrategy provides a new solution for overcoming the current challengesfacing the electrospinning process and has great potential across a widerange of tissue engineering applications.

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It should be noted that ratios, concentrations, amounts, and othernumerical data may be expressed herein in a range format. It is to beunderstood that such a range format is used for convenience and brevity,and thus, should be interpreted in a flexible manner to include not onlythe numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, butalso to include all the individual numerical values or sub-rangesencompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-rangeis explicitly recited. To illustrate, a concentration range of “about0.1% to about 5%” should be interpreted to include not only theexplicitly recited concentration of about 0.1 wt % to about 5 wt %, butalso include individual concentrations (e.g., 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) andthe sub-ranges (e.g., 0.5%, 1.1%, 2.2%, 3.3%, and 4.4%) within theindicated range. In an embodiment, the term “about” can includetraditional rounding according to significant figures of the numericalvalue. In addition, the phrase “about ‘x’ to ‘y’” includes “about ‘x’ toabout ‘y’”.

It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of thepresent disclosure are merely possible examples of implementations, andare set forth only for a clear understanding of the principles of thedisclosure. Many variations and modifications may be made to theabove-described embodiments of the disclosure without departingsubstantially from the spirit and principles of the disclosure. All suchmodifications and variations are intended to be included herein withinthe scope of this disclosure.

1. An electrospinning apparatus, comprising a device that a fiber is drawn from, wherein the tip of the device from where the fiber is drawn is at a first potential, and a structure that includes a plurality of conductive probes, wherein each probe has a distal end, wherein a portion of each probe extends from a non-conductive surface of the structure, wherein a first set of the distal ends are recessed relative to a second set of distal ends, wherein the first set and the set of distal ends form a first boundary of a target volume, wherein a second boundary of the target volume is not bound by the distal ends of the plurality of the probes, wherein the device is positioned adjacent the second boundary, wherein the conductive probes are at second potential, wherein there is a potential difference between the first potential and the second potential that causes the fiber to be directed to the target volume through the second boundary.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first set of the distal ends are further away from the tip of the structure than the second set of the distal ends.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first boundary of the target volume has a cross-sectional shape selected from: a substantially concave shape, a substantially cone shape, a substantially hemi-spherical shape, a substantially semi-spherical shape, an arcuate shape, a semi-polygonal shape, a substantially V-shape, a substantially C-shape, and a substantially U-shape, wherein the first set of the distal ends are further away from the tip of the structure than the second set of the distal ends.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first boundary of the target volume has a three dimensional shape selected from: a substantially cone shape, a substantially hemi-spherical shape, and a substantially semi-spherical shape, wherein the first set of the distal ends are further away from the tip of the structure than the second set of the distal ends.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the non-conductive surface is a flat surface.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the plurality of probes includes at least two groups of probes that are the not same length.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the non-conductive surface is a non-flat surface.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the non-conductive surface has a cross-sectional shape selected from: a substantially concave shape, an arcuate shape, a substantially V-shape, a substantially C-shape, and a substantially U-shape,
 9. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the non-conductive surface has a three-dimensional shape selected from: a substantially cone shape, a substantially hemi-spherical shape, a substantially semi-spherical shape, wherein the first set of the distal ends are further away from the tip of the structure than the second set of the distal ends.
 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the plurality of probes are the same length.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the plurality of probes includes at least two groups of probes that are the not same length.
 12. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the plurality of probes are at the same potential.
 13. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the one or more of the plurality of probes are at the different potential than one or more of the other of the plurality of probes.
 14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the target volume has a longest dimension and a second dimension that is perpendicular the longest dimension at the widest point, wherein the longest dimension is about 5 to 50 cm, wherein the second dimension is about 3 to 50 cm, and wherein the target volume is about 15 to 2500 cm³.
 15. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the plurality of probes includes about 0.1 to 4 probes per square cm.
 16. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein each probe has a length that extends from the non-conductive surface of the structure that is about 0.5 to 10 cm, wherein the diameter of the probe is about 100 μm to 0.5 cm.
 17. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the device includes a syringe.
 18. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the height of the nonconductive structure is about 5 to 10 cm, wherein the depth of the nonconductive structure is about 5 to 75 cm, and wherein the width of the nonconductive structure is about 5 to
 100. 19. A method of forming an uncompressed fibrous mesh, comprising: applying a potential difference between a tip of a device and a plurality of conductive probes on a structure, wherein each probe has a distal end, wherein a portion of each probe extends from a non-conductive surface of the structure, wherein a first set of the distal ends are recessed relative to a second set of distal ends, wherein the first set and the set of distal ends form a first boundary of a target volume, wherein a second boundary of the target volume is not bound by the distal ends of the plurality of the probes; drawing a fiber from the tip towards the target volume through the second boundary; and forming the uncompressed fibrous mesh in the target volume.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the potential is about 5 kV to 60 kV.
 21. The method of claim 19, wherein the fiber has a diameter of about 1 to 1000 nm.
 22. The method of claim 19, wherein the target volume is about 15 to 2500 cm³.
 23. The method of claim 19, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a volume that is about 50 to 1800 cm³, wherein the fiber occupies about 5 to 20% of the volume of the uncompressed fibrous mesh.
 24. The method of claim 19, wherein the potential is about 5 kV to 60 kV, wherein the target volume is about 15 to 2500 cm³, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a porosity of about 80 to 90%, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a volume that is about 50 to 1800 cm³, and wherein the fiber occupies about 5 to 20% of the volume of the uncompressed fibrous mesh.
 25. A structure, comprising: an uncompressed fibrous mesh including a fiber, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a volume that is about 50 to 1800 cm³, wherein the fiber occupies about 5 to 20% of the volume of the uncompressed fibrous mesh.
 26. The structure of claim 25, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a longest dimension and a second dimension that is perpendicular the longest dimension at the widest point, wherein the longest dimension is about 1 to 15 cm and the second dimension is about 1 to 15 cm.
 27. The structure of claim 25, wherein the uncompressed fibrous mesh has a porosity of about 80 to 90%.
 28. The structure of claim 25, wherein the fiber is a nanofiber, wherein the fiber has a diameter of about 1 to 500 μm.
 29. The structure of claim 25, wherein the fiber is a nanofiber, wherein the fiber has a diameter of about 1 to 1000 nm.
 30. The structure of claim 25, wherein the nanofiber is made of a material selected from the group consisting of: poly (ε-caprolactone), poly vinyl alcohol, polylactic acid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid, poly(etherurethane urea), collagen, elastin, chitosan, and a combination thereof. 